A Detailed Discussion on the Top Ten Global Technologies
1. Energy Technology
Energy technology is a scientific and technological development that began in the 1970s, primarily used for energy exploration and extraction. In addition to its original purpose, energy technology has matured significantly over the years and has been widely applied.
According to the China Electric Power Media Database, since 2012, China's energy consumption level has noticeably decreased. From 2012 to 2020, the total national energy consumption increased by 3.9%, 3.7%, 2.2%, 0.9%, 1.4%, 2.9%, 3.3%, 3.3%, and 2.2% respectively, with an average annual growth rate controlled within 3%. Compared with the GDP growth rate during the same period, the energy consumption per unit of GDP decreased by 3.6%, 3.8%, 4.8%, 5.6%, 5.0%, 3.7%, 3.1%, 2.6%, and 0.1% from 2012 to 2020. Over the span of 9 years, the energy consumption per unit of GDP has decreased by more than 28%, with a cumulative decrease of nearly 14% during the "Thirteenth Five-Year Plan" period.
China has firmly stated its commitment: to strive to reach peak carbon dioxide emissions before 2030 and to achieve carbon neutrality before 2060. This is China's promise to the world and a sign of confidence in its future economic development. As the largest developing country in the world, China is bound to surpass developed nations and become a global leader in environmental protection.In terms of international aspects, major countries and regions around the world have different focuses in their understanding of energy technology, with a particular emphasis on the development of strategic energy technologies with potential disruptive impacts, thereby reducing the cost of the entire value chain of energy innovation. For example, the United States has the "Comprehensive Energy Strategy," the European Union has the "2050 Energy Technology Roadmap," Japan has the "Energy and Environmental Innovation Strategy for 2030," and Russia has the "Draft Energy Strategy for 2035."
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In 2019, the United States and Japan were the two countries with the highest public investment in R&D among all member countries of the International Energy Agency (IEA). The combined public investment in R&D of the two countries accounted for nearly half (47%) of the total investment of the member countries. Following closely are Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Canada, South Korea, Italy, and Norway. Thanks to the "Horizon 2020" research and innovation framework program, the European Union's total public investment in energy technology R&D in 2019 ranked third in the world, after the United States and Japan.
The U.S. government places a high priority on energy technology research and development, investing a significant amount of R&D funds to maintain its position in the global energy technology field. As early as 2017, the U.S. federal government invested $7.3 billion to support R&D, a 9% increase from the previous year. Most of the R&D funds were used for research on clean energy technologies, including nuclear energy (especially small nuclear reactors), carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS), and energy efficiency.
The United States is in a leading position in the field of CCUS. By the end of 2019, the United States had 10 large-scale CCUS projects, capturing more than 25 million tons of carbon dioxide annually. In April 2020, the Department of Energy (DOE) clearly stated that it would provide $131 million to fund multiple CCUS research and development projects. Of this, $46 million was used to support the front-end process design of carbon dioxide capture technology for coal-fired or gas-fired power plants.
The European Union has set specific development goals and technical roadmaps, such as the "3x20%" target, which aims to increase the share of renewable energy in electricity to 20%, improve energy efficiency by 20%, and reduce carbon emissions by 20% compared to the 1990 level by 2020.In June 2020, the German government adopted the National Hydrogen Strategy, setting a goal to achieve carbon neutrality by the middle of this century and planning to become a global leader in hydrogen technology. Germany's strategy posits that, in the long term, only hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources (green hydrogen) is sustainable, which will be a key area for future investment. The German government estimates that by 2030, the demand for hydrogen will be approximately 90 to 110 terawatt-hours. To meet part of this demand, by 2030 Germany will have built offshore (or onshore) renewable energy power plants with a total installed capacity of 5 gigawatts.
The United Kingdom passed the Climate Change Act in 2008, which established the long-term goal of reducing carbon emissions by at least 80% from 1990 levels by 2050. The UK is the first major economy in the world to legally establish the goal of achieving "net-zero emissions" by 2050, placing clean development at the core of its modern industrial strategy.
In 2019, the UK's clean energy generation exceeded that of fossil fuels, and it plans to phase out all coal-fired power generation by 2025. In March 2019, the UK released the Offshore Wind Industry Agreement, planning to increase the UK's offshore wind power capacity to 30 gigawatts by 2030, meeting one-third of the UK's electricity demand.
The 10-megawatt renewable energy electrolysis water hydrogen production demonstration plant in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan (FH2R), is currently the world's largest renewable energy hydrogen production facility. The facility began operation on March 7, 2020, to conduct production tests of clean and low-cost hydrogen production technology. The facility has a 20-megawatt solar power generation device laid out over an area of 180,000 square meters, connected to a 10-megawatt electrolysis water hydrogen production device, with a designed production capacity of 1,200 standard cubic meters of hydrogen per hour. During the initial operation period, it can produce 200 tons of hydrogen per year, with a net zero carbon dioxide emission in the production process.
Energy is the fundamental driving force for the continuous development of the economy and society. Every time humanity seeks new energy sources, it triggers an energy revolution, and each energy revolution is inevitably accompanied by the advancement of energy science and technology. Energy is not only an economic resource but also a strategic and political resource.The development of energy science and technology is characterized by long cycles, large investments, strong inertia, and exclusivity. Blind development regardless of demand will lead to a huge waste and loss of resources and social wealth. To promote a revolution in energy technology, it is essential to follow the characteristics and laws of the energy field. The revolution in energy technology should have a clear spatiotemporal positioning and adapt to the national conditions of the country.
2. Magnetic Levitation Technology
The so-called magnetic levitation technology (referred to as EML technology or EMS technology) is a technique that uses magnetic force to overcome gravity and make objects levitate.
Currently, the global levitation technologies mainly include: magnetic levitation, optical levitation, acoustic levitation, airflow levitation, electrostatic levitation, particle beam levitation, etc., among which magnetic levitation technology is relatively mature. The forms of magnetic levitation technology can mainly be divided into: system self-stabilizing passive levitation and system non-self-stabilizing active levitation, etc.
The magnetic levitation train is a new type of transportation tool composed of non-contact magnetic support, magnetic guidance, and linear drive systems. It mainly includes high-speed superconducting electromotive magnetic levitation trains, high-speed conventional electromotive magnetic attraction magnetic levitation trains, and medium and low-speed conventional electromotive magnetic attraction magnetic levitation trains.The research on global magnetic levitation technology originated in Germany. In 1842, the British physicist Earnshow proposed the concept of magnetic levitation, arguing that a permanent magnet alone cannot maintain a ferromagnetic body in a freely stable levitated state in all six degrees of freedom. As early as 1922, the German engineer Hermann Kemper proposed the principle of electromagnetic levitation and applied for a patent for a magnetic levitation train in 1934. After the 1970s, developed countries such as Germany, Japan, the United States, Canada, France, and the United Kingdom successively began to plan the development of magnetic levitation transportation systems. However, the United States and the former Soviet Union abandoned this research plan in the 1970s and 1980s, respectively. Germany, China, and Japan continue to conduct research on magnetic levitation systems and have all made remarkable progress.
Japan began researching conventional magnetic levitation railways in 1962. Due to the rapid development of superconducting technology, it shifted to researching superconducting magnetic levitation railways in the early 1970s. In 1972, the first successful experiment of a 2.2-ton superconducting magnetic levitation train was conducted, reaching a speed of 50 kilometers per hour. In December 1977, on the Miyazaki magnetic levitation railway test line, the highest speed reached 204 kilometers per hour, and by December 1979, it was further increased to 517 kilometers. In November 1982, the manned test of the magnetic levitation train was successful. In 1995, the highest speed reached during the manned magnetic levitation train test was 411 kilometers per hour.
Germany's research on magnetic levitation railways began in 1968 (then the Federal Republic of Germany). At the beginning of the research, Germany focused on both conventional and superconducting levitation. By 1977, it had developed both conventional electromagnetic iron attraction and superconducting electromagnetic iron repulsion test vehicles, with the highest test speed reaching 400 kilometers per hour. In 1978, it was decided to build a 31.5-kilometer test line in Emsland, which started construction in 1980 and began unmanned tests in 1982. The highest test speed of the train reached 300 kilometers per hour by the end of 1983 and further increased to 400 kilometers in 1984. Germany's technology in conventional magnetic levitation railway research has become mature.
Compared to Japan and Germany, the United Kingdom started researching magnetic levitation railways later, only in 1973. However, the UK was one of the first countries to put magnetic levitation railways into commercial operation. In April 1984, a 600-meter-long magnetic levitation railway between Birmingham Airport and the International Station officially opened for business. Passengers could travel from Birmingham Airport to the International Station in just 90 seconds by magnetic levitation train. Regrettably, in 1995, after operating for 11 years, this once unique commercial magnetic levitation train in the world was announced to cease operations, and its passenger transport task was replaced by airport shuttle buses.
There are three types of magnetic levitation technology worldwide: Japan's superconducting electromagnetic levitation, Germany's conventional electromagnetic levitation, and China's permanent magnetic levitation. Permanent magnetic levitation technology is an original innovative technology with core and related technology invention patents owned by Dalian, China. According to technical personnel, the magnetic levitation trains of Japan and Germany are in contact with the track when the power is off, while the magnetic levitation trains made using permanent magnetic levitation technology do not make contact with the track under any circumstances.China's permanent magnetic levitation has five major advantages compared to foreign magnetic levitation: First, it has strong levitation force. Second, it has good economic performance. Third, it has strong energy-saving characteristics. Fourth, it has good safety. Fifth, it has stable balance. The slot track permanent magnetic levitation is designed specifically for regional transportation between cities, with trains running on elevated slot tracks, designed for a speed of 230 kilometers per hour, suitable for both passenger and freight transport.
3. Neptune Undersea Observatory
The "Neptune" undersea observatory is an undersea observatory built by Canada at the Esquimalt Naval Base in the western Pacific coastal province of British Columbia. It was developed by the globally renowned Canadian giant Alcatel-Lucent. It has been transmitting observational data since the end of 2009.
The "Neptune" undersea observatory includes five 13-ton devices similar to space capsules. These devices are placed on the seabed off the west coast of Vancouver Island and are connected to undersea optical cables. The devices contain hundreds of observation instruments, allowing researchers from all over the world to observe the undersea world in real time through the Internet without leaving home.Barnes once said: "Human fishing activities have already dived to an area about 1200 meters deep under the sea. Over time, the depth of fishing will continue to increase. But we know very little about how creatures can survive deep in the ocean." Barnes vividly called "Neptune" the "information water dragon belt." Its launch marks the peak of a project that cost 8 million US dollars and took 8 years to complete.
"Canada Neptune" is the world's largest undersea wired local area network. The "Neptune" network will transmit data obtained by hundreds of undersea instruments and sensors. This data will be directly transmitted from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean to the Internet, and it will be transmitted continuously in a 365 days a year, 24 hours a day manner. This undersea network can generate 50 terabytes (TB, one thousand gigabytes) of data every year. Through these data, scientists can understand a variety of information from earthquake dynamics to the impact of climate change on water columns, from deep-sea ecosystems to the migration of salmon.
Chris Barnes from the project office of the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, said: "This is a revolution that brings two new elements of power facilities and high-bandwidth Internet to the marine environment. We are on the verge of wiring the ocean."
Canada's "Neptune" undersea observation technology is mainly used for: observing the activity of undersea volcanoes; real-time monitoring of earthquakes and tsunamis in the area; exploring mineral, metal, and hydrocarbon resources; studying the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere, climate change; the cycle of greenhouse gases in the ocean; the mysteries of the marine ecosystem; the periodic changes of the ocean, the breeding and regeneration process of energy and resources; marine mammal communities; marine fishery reserves; pollution and toxicity bloom, etc.
4. Very Large ArrayThe Very Large Array (VLA) is a radio telescope array composed of 27 antennas, each with a diameter of 25 meters, located on the Plains of San Agustin in New Mexico, USA, at coordinates 34°04'43.49"N 107°37'05.81"W, and an altitude of 2124 meters, making it the world's largest synthesis aperture radio telescope.
The VLA belongs to the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in the United States. It is composed of 27 parabolic antennas with a diameter of 25 meters, arranged in a Y-shaped configuration, with each arm measuring 2.1 kilometers in length. There are three combination modes, with the longest baseline being 36 kilometers. It can operate at six frequency bands and can perform circular polarization (left-hand and right-hand) and linear polarization measurements. In the centimeter band, the highest spatial resolution reaches the level of arcseconds (an arcsecond, also known as an arc, is a unit of angular measurement, which is one-sixtieth of an arcminute), comparable to the resolution of ground-based optical telescopes; its sensitivity is an order of magnitude higher than that of other radio telescopes worldwide, with imaging times ranging from 8 to 10 hours. Depending on the observation requirements, it can perform continuous spectrum, radio spectral line, and very long baseline interferometry observation and research work.
Each antenna of the VLA weighs 230 tons and is mounted on rails, allowing for movement. All antennas are arranged in a Y-shape, with each arm measuring 21 kilometers in length, and the longest baseline that can be formed is 36 kilometers. The VLA is part of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) and was completed in 1981. It operates at six frequency bands, with the highest resolution reaching 0.05 arcseconds, comparable to the resolution of large ground-based optical telescopes.
Scientists have used the VLA to discover water on Mercury, the bright radio emission of the corona surrounding ordinary stars, microquasars in the Milky Way, Einstein rings produced by gravitational effects around distant galaxies, and the radio isotope comparison images of distant gamma-ray bursts. The huge scale of the VLA allows astronomers to study the detailed information of ultra-high-speed cosmic jets and even map the center of the Milky Way.
5. Fire Control TechnologyFire control technology, also known as fire control system technology, is widely used in the fields of manufacturing and weapon production, enhancing the comprehensive combat capabilities of weapons.
The full name is Fire Command and Control Engineering, which is a general term for equipment that automatically implements the aiming and firing of shooting weapons. Its components include:
1. Target tracker
2. Fire control computer
3. System control panel
4. Firing control device
5. Interface equipment
6. Necessary peripheral equipment
Function: To obtain information related to the battlefield situation and targets, calculate firing parameters, provide firing auxiliary decision-making, control the firing of firepower weapons, and evaluate the effectiveness of firing.
Weapon fire control systems are a general term for equipment that automatically or semi-automatically implements the aiming and firing of weapons. It is a shorthand for weapon firepower control systems. For example, modern artillery, tank guns, tactical rockets and missiles, airborne weapons (aircraft cannons, bombs, and missiles), and shipborne weapons (ship cannons, torpedoes, missiles, and depth charges) are mostly equipped with fire control systems.For non-guided weapons equipped with a fire control system, it can enhance the speed and accuracy of aiming and firing, and strengthen the adaptability to harsh battlefield environments, in order to fully utilize the weapon's destructive capabilities. For guided weapons equipped with a fire control system, due to the more accurate aiming before launching, it can improve the working conditions of its guidance system, enhance the missile's response to maneuvering targets, and reduce the error rate of the guidance system.
Common observation equipment used in fire control systems includes: radar, optical or laser rangefinders, infrared or low-light night vision devices, battlefield reconnaissance television, acoustic detection equipment, sonar, etc. For fixed targets, maps and aerial (or satellite) photographs can also be used. After detecting the target, it is necessary to further identify the type (vehicles, aircraft, missiles, ships, weapons, personnel, etc.), model, quantity, and friend-or-foe attributes of the target. The application of image recognition technology has made target identification automated, and the most effective equipment for friend-or-foe identification is the electronic friend-or-foe identifier.
Aviation fire control systems are systems composed of onboard equipment that controls the direction, intensity, timing, and duration of aircraft firepower. It guides the aircraft to the target area, searches, approaches, identifies, and tracks the target, measures the motion parameters of the target and the carrier, performs fire control calculations, and controls the firing mode, quantity, and fusing of weapons.
For weapons that require carrier guidance, it also carries out guidance after launch. The fire control system of a bomber includes penetration, navigation, aiming and bombing, and defense equipment. The bomber's multiple guns can be operated by one person. The computing optical sight aims a spherical turret at the target, while other turrets are controlled by the servo system to follow the action.
Modern fighter aircraft are equipped with a fire control system controlled by a digital computer, composed of a pulse Doppler radar with downward-looking capability, inertial navigation system, atmospheric data computer, etc. The pilot obtains information about friends and enemies through a head-up display, downward-looking device, and multi-function display, and controls and manages the aiming, firing, and deployment of missiles, cannons, rockets, and bombs.Anti-Tank Missile Control System
Early anti-tank missiles employed tube-launching, optical tracking, and wire guidance. Thanks to the optical guidance system (infrared, laser), the shooter only needs to align the crosshair of the sight, which is synchronized with the optical tracker (such as an infrared angle-measuring device), with the target. The missile can automatically correct the deviation between it and the aiming line to fly towards the target, thus reducing the difficulty for the shooter to control the missile and improving the hit rate.
Fire Control Radar
Fire control radar, which includes radar scanning systems and fire control systems, is a process that achieves comprehensive and effective use of the entire weapon system through computer-aided systems. It is generally used on integrated weapon platforms such as aircraft and warships (both carrying multiple concurrent weapons). It can obtain relevant information about the battlefield situation and targets in a limited time; calculate firing parameters, provide firing assistance decisions; control the firing of firepower weapons, and evaluate the effectiveness of the shooting.
6. Juno Jupiter Probe
The Juno Jupiter probe is the second exploration project implemented by NASA's "New Frontiers Program" (the first project is the New Horizons probe launched in 2006).
The Juno Jupiter probe is the second exploration project implemented by NASA's "New Frontiers" program (the other one is the New Horizons probe launched in 2006). "Juno" was built by Lockheed Martin of the United States, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory under NASA is responsible for the operation of the entire exploration mission.The name "Juno" of the probe is derived from the wife of the Roman god Jupiter in Roman mythology. Jupiter used his powers to veil himself with clouds and fog, but Juno could see through these veils and understand the true nature of Jupiter. Thus, the probe was named after her, with the metaphorical hope that it could unravel the secrets hidden by the gas giant shrouded in clouds and fog.
On August 5, 2011, at 12:25 PM, the Juno Jupiter probe was launched from Cape Canaveral in Florida, USA, embarking on its expedition to Jupiter. In July 2015, NASA announced that the Juno probe was expected to reach Jupiter on July 4, 2016. At 2 PM on January 13, 2016 (3 AM on January 14, Beijing time), the American Juno probe broke the record for the farthest voyage of a probe powered by solar energy, at that time it was about 793 million kilometers away from the sun, compared to only about 150 million kilometers from the Earth to the sun.
On the morning of July 11, 2017, at 9:55 AM, the "Juno" Jupiter probe passed close to Jupiter and officially flew past the famous storm system in the solar system - Jupiter's "Great Red Spot", flying about 9000 kilometers above it.
The Juno probe carries three solar panels, each 2.7 meters wide and 10 meters long. Within an hour after launch, the three solar panels will slowly unfold, and the media have vividly called these three solar panels "solar wings". In April 2017, after flying in orbit around Jupiter for nine months, Juno will surpass the European Space Agency's "Rosetta" comet probe and become the spacecraft that has flown the longest distance solely powered by solar energy.
The solar panels of the Juno probe can provide 14 kilowatts of electricity. After entering the orbit of Jupiter, the power provided is only 400 watts, which can only light a few light bulbs. Therefore, the scientific instruments and onboard computers on the Juno probe are highly energy-efficient, and at the same time, the research team has carefully designed the orbit for the Juno probe to run around Jupiter, so that it can receive as much sunlight as possible.These solar panels have an efficient utilization rate of light energy, which also determines their large size: the length reaches 8.9 meters, and the width reaches 2.7 meters. It is sufficient to provide power for five standard light bulbs, and if the angle of the solar panels facing the sun is optimized, it can generate a maximum of 12-14 kilowatts of electricity. Due to the strong high-energy particle field near Jupiter and its satellites, the radiation intensity exceeds any place where human detectors have reached except the sun. The radiation belt starts from the equator of Jupiter, passes through the moon of Europa, and extends outward by 650,000 kilometers. Therefore, various external and internal devices, including solar panels, must be shielded from radiation to withstand strong X-ray exposure.
The total cruise distance of Juno exceeds 716 million kilometers, with a speed of over 16,000 km/h (4.4 km/s). In one year on Earth, it will orbit Jupiter 33 times. After launching on August 5, 2011, Juno's cruise route will first undergo gravity assistance from the Earth, and then meet the Earth again two years later (in October 2013). In 2016, it will perform an orbital insertion ignition, slow down the speed, and enter a polar orbit with a period of 11 days.
Juno is equipped with nine detection devices, including a wide-angle color camera that can send color images back to Earth. When Juno enters the orbit, infrared and microwave detection instruments will measure the thermal radiation source from the deep atmosphere of Jupiter. These observations will supplement and confirm previous studies on the composition of Jupiter, including the detection of the distribution of water and oxygen.
Juno will also study the circulation that causes many forms and phenomena in the Jovian atmosphere. At the same time, other instruments will collect data on Jupiter's gravitational field and the magnetic fields of the poles. All Juno mission arrangements will be completed in October 2017, when the probe will have orbited Jupiter 33 times and finally leave the orbit and fall into Jupiter.
Juno will also use its communication equipment to investigate Jupiter's gravitational field, which is part of its "gravity science experiment" project. By transmitting signals back to Earth and observing their Doppler effect, scientists will be able to study the impact of Jupiter's gravitational field on the signals.7. Aeronautical Technology
Aeronautical technology refers to the comprehensive engineering techniques for launching spacecraft into space to explore, develop, and utilize space and celestial bodies beyond Earth, also known as space technology.
Composition of Aeronautical Technology:
1. Space launch vehicle technology. Space launch vehicle technology is the foundation of aeronautical technology. To send various spacecraft into space, it is necessary to utilize the thrust of the launch vehicle to overcome Earth's gravity and air resistance. The commonly used launch vehicle is the carrier rocket.The launch vehicle mainly consists of: the power system, control system, rocket body, and instruments, and the measurement and control system. At present, people have developed multistage launch vehicles. Multistage launch vehicles are composed of several rockets that can work independently, connected in series along the axis.
2. Spacecraft technology. A spacecraft is an aircraft that operates along a certain orbit in space and performs certain tasks, also known as a space vehicle. Spacecraft are divided into two major categories: unmanned spacecraft and manned spacecraft.
Unmanned spacecraft are further divided into: artificial Earth satellites and space probes, based on whether they orbit the Earth. Among them, artificial Earth satellites are divided according to their use into: 1) Scientific satellites: used for detection and research; 2) Application satellites: directly serving the national economy and military; 3) Technical test satellites: used for technical tests and application satellite tests. Space probes are divided according to the detection targets into lunar probes, planetary (Venus, Mars, Mercury, Saturn, etc.) probes, and interstellar probes.
Manned spacecraft are divided according to the flight and working methods into: manned spacecraft, space stations, and space shuttles, etc. Among them, manned spacecraft can be divided into: satellite-type manned spacecraft, lunar-type manned spacecraft, and interplanetary manned spacecraft, etc.; space stations can be divided into: single-type space stations and combined-type space stations.
2. Space measurement and control technology. Space measurement and control technology is the technology for tracking, measuring, monitoring, and controlling the launch vehicle and spacecraft in flight. To ensure the normal flight of the rocket and the normal operation of the spacecraft in orbit, in addition to the measurement and control equipment on the rocket and spacecraft, it is also necessary to establish a ground measurement and control (including communication) system.The ground control system consists of control stations, stations, and measurement ships distributed around the world. The space control system mainly includes: optical tracking measurement system, radio tracking measurement system, telemetry system, real-time data processing system, remote control system, communication system, etc.
From the launch of the world's first artificial Earth satellite on October 4, 1957, to the end of December 1990, the former Soviet Union, the United States, France, China, Japan, India, Israel, the United Kingdom, and other countries, as well as the European Space Agency, have successively developed about 80 types of carrier rockets, built more than 10 large space launch sites, and established a complete Earth control network. Countries and regions around the world have successfully launched 4127 spacecraft. This includes 3875 various satellites, 141 manned spacecraft, 111 space probes, and dozens of application satellite systems put into operation. By the end of the last century, more than 5000 spacecraft had been launched.
Aerospace technology is the crystallization of modern science and technology. It is based on basic science and technical science, and has gathered many new achievements of engineering technology in the 20th century. Mechanics, thermodynamics, materials science, medicine, electronic technology, optoelectronics, automatic control, jet propulsion, computers, vacuum technology, low-temperature technology, semiconductor technology, manufacturing process, etc., have played an important role in the development of aerospace technology.
The five major technical stages in aviation are:
1. Rocket technology: Rocket technology has promoted the history of human space development. Gunpowder is one of the four great inventions of ancient China. As early as the year 1000, during the Song Dynasty, Tang Fu presented the principle of rockets as a weapon of war, which was introduced to foreign countries in the early 13th century. It is said that at the end of the 14th century, there was a scholar in China named Wan Hu who installed 47 of the largest rockets of the time behind the chair, holding two large kites in both hands, trying to rise into the air with the thrust of the rocket and the lifting force of the kite. But in the end, there was an explosion, and the fragments were scattered, and the person was gone. In memory of this brave man who was the first in the world to test rocket flight, a crater near the Oriental Sea on the surface of the moon is named after Wan Hu.At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the representative figures of modern rocket technology and pioneers of spaceflight were: Tsiolkovsky from the former Soviet Union, Goddard from the United States, and Oberth from Germany.
Tsiolkovsky dedicated his entire life to the research of rocket technology and spaceflight. In his classic works, he profoundly demonstrated the concept of rocket flight, and he was the first to theoretically prove that multistage rockets could overcome the Earth's gravity to enter space. He established the basic mathematical equations of rocket motion, laying the theoretical foundation. He was the first to propose the initiative of using liquid propellant rockets, which was realized in just 30 years.
Dr. Goddard from the United States began his research on modern rockets in 1910. In his 1919 paper, he proposed the mathematical principles of rocket flight, pointing out that rockets must have a speed of 7.9 km/s to overcome the Earth's gravity. He recognized that liquid propellant rockets have great potential. In March 1926, he successfully developed and launched the world's first liquid propellant rocket, with a flight speed of 103 km/h, an ascent height of 12.5 meters, and a flight distance of 56 meters.
Professor Oberth from Germany not only established the basic principles of rockets working in the vacuum of space in his book published in 1923, but also explained that as long as the rocket can generate sufficient thrust, it can orbit the Earth.
The real emergence of modern rockets was during World War II in Nazi Germany. As early as 1932, Germany launched the A2 rocket, which reached a flight height of 3 kilometers. In October 1942, the V-2 rocket (A4 type) was successfully launched, with a flight height of 85 kilometers and a flight distance of 190 kilometers. The successful launch of the V-2 rocket turned the theories of spaceflight pioneers into reality and marked an important page in the history of modern rocket technology development.2. Satellite Technology: The concept of artificial Earth satellites was first proposed in the United States as early as 1945, with the U.S. Naval Air Bureau already researching a satellite to send scientific instruments into space. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union used the "Sputnik" launch vehicle to send the world's first artificial Earth satellite into space. The satellite was spherical, with an outer diameter of 0.58 meters, extending four strip antennas, and weighed 83.6 kilograms. The satellite worked normally in the sky for three months. On November 3 of the same year, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, which was conical in shape and weighed 508.3 kilograms. This was a biological satellite, which, in addition to using the dog "Laika" for biological experiments, was also used to detect solar ultraviolet, X-rays, and cosmic rays. Measured by today's standards, the Soviet Union's first satellite was just a sphere with extended transmitter antennas, but it was the world's first man-made celestial body, turning the dreams of thousands of years into reality and opening a new era of space exploration.
3. Space Exploration: The main purpose of space exploration is to understand the origin, evolution, and current status of the solar system. Space probes have achieved close observation and direct sampling exploration of the moon and planets, opening a new stage for human exploration of celestial bodies within the solar system.
4. Lunar Exploration: The moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth and naturally becomes the first target of space exploration. Directly examining the moon helps to better understand the origin of the Earth-Moon system, and the moon is an ideal intermediate station for future space flight and the first settlement for humans to enter the solar system.
5. Manned Spaceflight: Manned spaceflight occupies an important position in space exploration. Although spacecraft carry precise, highly sensitive devices that can automatically observe, operate, store, and process data.
From April 1961 to September 1970, the Soviet Union launched a total of 17 manned spacecraft (6 "Vostok" spacecraft, 2 "Voskhod" spacecraft, and 9 "Soyuz" spacecraft). In March 1965, astronauts first walked out of the spacecraft on the "Voskhod." In January 1966, two "Soyuz" spacecraft docked in orbit for the first time and achieved the transfer of two astronauts from one spacecraft to another.Between 1971 and 1982, seven "Salute" space stations weighing between 18 and 20 tons were launched. By 1985, 27 manned spacecrafts (Soyuz T and TM) and 25 unmanned spacecrafts (Progress) had also been launched, serving as a transport system between Earth and space. In 1986, the Mir space station was launched, which became the core module of the future permanent space station, a large space station composed of seven modules that was to be completed in the 1990s.
Russia plans to launch unmanned and manned Mars spacecraft in the early 21st century, as well as to establish a manned lunar base. The "Mir" space station, designed for a lifespan of five years, operated for fifteen years and safely fell into the South Pacific Ocean at 13:59 on March 23, 2001.
Aerospace technology is a cutting-edge technology that rapidly developed in the mid-20th century and is one of the most influential scientific and technological fields in today's world of high technology, impacting modern society and the development of the national economy. The launch of artificial satellites has turned the Earth into a "global village." The combination of aerospace technology and information technology has promoted a "knowledge explosion" among humanity. According to statistics, in the more than 40 years since the launch of satellites, human inventions and creations have exceeded the total of the past 2000 years.
8. China's Sky Eye
China's Sky Eye. The Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope (FAST) is located in the Karst depression of Dawodang, Kedu Town, Pingtang County, Qiannan Buyi and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou Province. The project is a major national scientific and technological infrastructure. The "Sky Eye" project consists of several major parts, including the active reflector system, feed support system, measurement and control system, receiver and terminal, and observation base. Therefore, the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope is known as "China's Sky Eye." The concept was proposed by Chinese astronomer Nan Rendong in 1994 and took 22 years to complete. It was officially put into operation on September 25, 2016.The Chinese Tianyan, led by the National Astronomical Observatories of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is the world's largest single-aperture and most sensitive radio telescope with China's independent intellectual property rights. Its comprehensive performance is ten times that of the famous Arecibo radio telescope. This scientific invention can promote the development of world astronomy and represents the maturity of telescope technology.
The reason for the formation of FAST. In 1993, at the International Union of Radio Science Conference held in Tokyo, astronomers from 10 countries, including China, proposed the construction of a new generation of "large telescopes" for radio. They hoped to harvest more radio signals before the world's electromagnetic signal environment deteriorates to an uncontrollable state. Therefore, the motivation for building FAST is based on this. In July 1994, the concept of the FAST project was proposed.
The Chinese Tianyan FAST cable network is the world's largest span and most accurate cable structure, and it is also the world's first cable system to adopt a variable working method. The technical difficulty can be imagined, such as the development of high-stress amplitude steel cables, the fatigue performance requirements of the FAST project for the cables are equivalent to twice the specified value, and there is no experience or data for reference at home and abroad. The development process of the project went through a repeated "failure - understanding - modification - improvement" process, and finally, it took a year and a half to complete the technical research.
This achievement has been recognized by foreign expert groups at the international expert review meeting and has been successfully applied in the FAST project. The continuous breakthrough of many technical difficulties in the Chinese Tianyan cable network and the formation of 12 independent innovative patent results, including 7 invention patents.
After the completion of the Chinese Tianyan FAST, it has become the world's largest aperture radio telescope. Compared with the 100-meter telescope in Bonn, Germany, known as the "largest machine on the ground," the sensitivity of the Chinese Tianyan has increased by about 10 times; compared with the 300-meter Arecibo telescope in the United States, which was rated as the top ten engineering projects of the 20th century before the Apollo moon landing, its comprehensive performance has increased by about 10 times. As the world's largest single-aperture telescope, FAST will maintain the status of world-class equipment in the next 20 to 30 years.The design technical plan of FAST, in addition to achieving significant breakthroughs in science and technology in six aspects, including the observation of neutral hydrogen lines and other centimeter band spectral lines, the exploration from the origin of the universe to the structure of interstellar matter, the search for faint pulsars and other faint radio sources, and the efficient search for extraterrestrial rational life, will also serve as a multidisciplinary basic research platform. It has the capability to extend the observation of neutral hydrogen to the edge of the universe, observe dark matter and dark energy, and search for the first generation of celestial bodies.
9. Mars Exploration Rover
The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) is a Mars exploration plan by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 2003. The main purpose of this plan is to send two Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, to Mars for on-site investigation of the red planet.
The Mars Exploration Rover was launched in 2003 and is mainly used for collecting data and on-site investigation on Mars, which represents the advancement of human planetary exploration technology.The renowned bearing giant Timken once provided ultra-precision bearings to NASA's "Mars Exploration Rover", further consolidating its position as a leading supplier in the aerospace industry. Starsys Research, one of the partners in the "Mars Exploration Rover" project, has installed Timken's ball bearings in 13 different "Mars Exploration Rover" designs, including the dispersion and operation gearboxes on the wheels, solar array drive plates, camera poles, and other devices.
Timken has conducted many tests on the bearings to ensure they can operate normally in harsh environments. Most of the tests are conducted in natural conditions, including confirming different loads to ensure that the bearing stress does not exceed the appropriate range. Starsys also conducted its own tests to ensure that the bearings work under a certain torque, so that the engine does not operate overload.
Why do humans explore Mars? According to scientists' research, the significance of Mars exploration mainly includes the following aspects:
Mars is one of the planets that humans can explore at a relatively close distance from Earth. 4 billion years ago, Mars had a similar climate to Earth, with rivers, lakes, and even oceans. Therefore, the unknown reason for Mars becoming what it is today is significant for protecting the Earth's climate.
Secondly, Mars has a huge ozone hole, and solar ultraviolet rays shine on Mars without any obstruction. This may be the reason why Viking 1 and Viking 2 did not find organic molecules. Human research on Mars helps to understand the extreme consequences for Earth if the Earth's ozone layer disappears. Especially, searching for fossils of life that once existed on Mars has become one of the most exciting goals in planetary exploration. If truly found, it means that as long as the conditions are met, human life can rise again on other planets in the universe.Mars exploration has become a testing ground for new technologies, such as atmospheric braking, which utilizes Martian resources to produce oxidizers and fuel for the return trip, as well as remote-controlled automatic devices and sampling for long-distance communication. In the long term, Mars is a planet that can be inhabited by humans. Mars is the closest to Earth and is the most likely to be suitable for another world of life forms, and this has been unanimously recognized by scientists.
As of now, out of the 43 probes launched to Mars by humans, only 18 have been successful, with a success rate of less than 50%. In 1960, the former Soviet Union launched the first Mars probe - Mars 1, but this exploration was unsuccessful, and several subsequent launches also failed. From the beginning of 1960 until 1971, almost all of the Mars exploration plans carried out by the Soviet Union ended in failure. It was not until 1971 that the Soviet Union launched three probes to Mars, although they failed, but among them, Mars 3 became the first probe to land on Mars. It only worked for 20 seconds and did not even have time to send back a photo.
In 1964, the United States launched two probes: Mariner 3 and Mariner 4. Mariner 3 failed, but Mariner 4 succeeded and sent back 21 photos to Earth. Scientists found that the atmospheric density of Mars is even thinner than people thought, and humans have obtained the surface pressure of Mars, but no magnetic field has been detected to date.
In 1996, the American Mars Global Surveyor was successfully launched. This probe worked continuously for 10 years until it lost signal contact in 2006. It is one of the most successful Mars exploration missions in the world because the Mars surface area observed this time is the largest in history. It used some professional instruments it carried to measure altitude, and scientists drew a topographic map of Mars.
In 2001, the United States launched the "Odyssey" Mars probe to test the geology and climate of Mars. In 2002, it was found that there might be abundant frozen water on the surface and near the surface of Mars. In 2011, the United States launched the Curiosity Mars rover, which is a Mars rover powered by nuclear power and is still working today.In 2003, the European Space Agency's "Mars Express" probe, carrying the Beagle 2 lander, successfully landed on Mars but lost contact. In early 2015, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) discovered what appeared to be the missing Beagle 2. Orbital images showed that the lander had successfully landed on Mars but ultimately failed to deploy its solar panels, preventing contact with Earth. At the time, the European Space Agency believed that the lander had crashed on the surface of Mars, not expecting it to be missing for more than a decade.
Europe made significant discoveries in Mars exploration through the Mars Express mission. For example, photos taken by the high-resolution stereo camera HRSC on the Mars Express spacecraft showed that at the bottom of an unnamed crater near the North Pole of Mars, there was ice formed from water condensation. In 2004, the ultraviolet and infrared atmospheric spectrometer on the Mars Express probe discovered the existence of Martian auroras.
Currently, Mars Express has orbited Mars more than 5,000 times, transmitting a large amount of data and surface images, and has made a tremendous contribution to Mars exploration.
In 2013, India launched a Mars probe that successfully entered Mars' orbit. This mission was India's first interplanetary exploration mission. India's ISRO became the fourth space agency to successfully conduct a Mars mission, following Russia's RSA, the United States' NASA, and the European Union's ESA.
On October 11, 2019, China's Mars probe made its first public appearance, with plans to launch in 2020 and land on Mars before 2021. It is worth mentioning that due to the constraints of celestial motion, there is only one optimal launch opportunity for Mars exploration every 26 months. From 2016 to around 2020, there are only three launch opportunities, and the world will usher in a peak in Mars exploration.In 2020, China's first Mars exploration will achieve the three goals of "orbiting, landing, and patrolling" in one go, which is unprecedented in other countries' first Mars explorations, and the challenges faced are also unprecedented. Mars is as far as 400 million kilometers from Earth. After the separation of the spacecraft and the rocket, China's Mars probe will be captured by the gravity of Mars after about 7 months of cruise flight.
The location of China's first Mars landing will be in the low latitude region of Mars, which is a certain area close to the equator of Mars, but the exact location has not yet been determined. There are many uncertainties when the lander makes a soft landing on the surface of Mars, which is also one of the major difficulties of the mission. The probe performing the first Mars mission will carry a total of 13 sets of scientific payloads, such as various remote sensing cameras and shallow surface radars for global Mars exploration. Compared with the first lunar rover "Yutu" with a weight of 140 kilograms, the first Mars rover has a weight of about 200 kilograms and can work for 92 Earth days.
10. National Ignition Facility of the United States
The National Ignition Facility (NIF, i.e., laser fusion device) is located in California, USA, and is developed by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Since the start of the project in 1994, it has been delayed many times, and its ultimate goal is to achieve fusion reactions in 2010 and reach a break-even point, that is, the energy produced by the laser in the fusion reaction is greater than the energy they consume.
The National Ignition Facility plan costs more than 3.5 billion US dollars to build and operate, and the building accommodating the NIF device is 215 meters long and 120 meters wide, equivalent to three football fields. The National Ignition Facility was completed in 1997, and it is worth mentioning that the National Ignition Facility is the largest laser in the world, mainly used for research on nuclear fusion.The National Ignition Facility (NIF) can focus 2 million joules of energy through 192 laser beams onto a very small point, thereby generating temperatures and pressures similar to those in the cores of stars and giant planets, as well as during nuclear explosions. On this basis, scientists can carry out many experiments that were previously impossible on Earth.
The NIF in the United States has three missions: The first mission is to allow scientists to simulate nuclear explosions and study the performance of nuclear weapons, which has become the purpose of the United States to build the NIF, to ensure that the United States maintains nuclear deterrence without the need for nuclear tests.
The second mission is to enable scientists to further understand the secrets of the universe. Scientists can use the NIF to simulate the environment of supernovae, black hole boundaries, stars, and the cores of giant planets to conduct scientific experiments. Most of these experiments will not be kept secret and will provide the scientific community with a large amount of previously unobtainable data.
The third mission is to ensure the energy security of the United States. Scientists hope to use the NIF to create controllable hydrogen fusion reactions similar to those inside the sun starting from 2010, and ultimately use them to produce sustainable clean energy. If successful, it will be a historically significant scientific breakthrough.
NIF is a key link in the stockpile stewardship program of the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) of the United States. NIF is currently the world's largest and most complex laser optical system, used to achieve the first fusion ignition in human history under laboratory conditions. 192 rectangular laser beams will converge in a 30-foot target chamber, which contains a hydrogen isotope target pellet with a diameter of 0.44 centimeters. When the fusion reaction occurs, the temperature can reach 100 million degrees, and the pressure exceeds 1,000 billion atmospheres.July 23, 2012 - According to a report from the National Defense Science and Technology Information Network, the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in the United States has set a new national record for single-beam laser energy.
As previously reported by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the NIF fired 192 laser beams on July 5th, which were then fused into a single laser pulse, generating a peak power of 500 trillion watts. This is more than 1000 times the total electricity used by the United States at any given moment, marking the most powerful laser pulse ever launched in human history.
The NIF, which houses the world's largest laser facility, emitted 192 beams of optically amplified electromagnetic radiation. All emissions were carried out within a few hundred millionths of a second, delivering a "peak power" of 500 trillion watts (petawatts) and 1.85 megajoules of ultraviolet laser energy.
In a speech at the facility's inauguration ceremony, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated that the construction of this laser system is a great achievement for California and the United States. It has the potential to revolutionize the country's energy structure, as it will teach people to harness energy similar to that of the sun and convert it into the energy needed for driving cars and daily home life.